Poverty and Environment What is the Environment? The term environment’ used narrowly refers to green issues concerned with nature such as pollution control, biodiversity and climate change. Use more broadly, it includes issues such as drinking water and sanitation provision (often known as the brown agenda). Neefjes (2000, p. 2) uses the term in a broad sense, referring to the environment as a vehicle for analyzing and describing relationships between people and their surroundings, now and in the future. What is the linkage between Poverty and Environment? The simplistic cyclical relationship between environment and poverty is where poverty causes environmental destruction and this causes poverty.

What is environment? The surrounding. It is a complex of many factors that interact not only with the organism but also among themselves. The physical-chemical and biological components of the environment are of great importance to an ecologist.

Soil is the upper layer of the earth’s crust or surface. Different vegetation types occur on different soil types. Soil types are closely related to species distribution and community structure. Specifically, species diversity is linked to soil composition, stratification and soil formation.

Phylum Arthropoda Subphylum Trilobita (Trilobitomorpha): trilobites (extinct) Subphylum Chelicerata: chelicerates Class Merostomata: horseshoe crabs Class Pycnogonida: sea spiders Class Arachnida: spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites, etc. Subphylum Crustacea: crustaceans Class Malacostraca (orders: Isopoda, Amphipoda, Decapoda and Stomatopoda) Class Branchiopoda: brine shrimp, water fleas (Daphnia) Class Copepoda:copepods Class Cirripedia: barnacles Class Ostracoda: seed shrimps Subphylum Uniramia: uniramians Class Diplopoda: millipedes Class Chilopoda: centipedes Class Pauropoda: pauropods Class Symphyla: symphylans Class Insecta: insects --- (subphylum Hexapoda

Identification; assigning a plant to a particular group The identification of plant specimen is its determination of being identical with or similar to another already known plant. A character is any property of plant that can be used to record similarities or differences between individuals Identification characters are divided into two: Endormophic characters – internal features used for identification palynology; anatomy; cytology; phytochemicals; genotypes/semantids Exomorphic characters- external features used for identification Morphological characters are those that deal with external form and structure of plants; they include growth habit, leaf, surface coverings, flower, inflourescence, fruits etc

One of the largest, highly diverse and widely distributed groups in the animal kingdom Very abundant - numbers extremely high (more than 60,000 described species (with an estimated 500,000 more still undescribed) Habitat - both aquatic and terrestrial (many free-living & parasitic)

Blood is a circulating fluid tissue well developed in reptiles, birds and mammals. Blood consists of two components. These are: a) Blood cells. These are also known as the formed elements. The cells make up about 45 percent of blood. This fraction of blood is known as packed cell volume (PCV) or the hematocrit value of blood. b) Plasma. This is the liquid part of blood that makes about 55 percent of blood.

The purpose of the manual is to guide Counsel on general methods of legislative drafting. Further, it is intended to serve as a ready reference and guide to legislative drafting in addition to published works on the subject. The manual sets out uniform legislative drafting standards and principles to be applied by Counsel in the National Assembly.

ADDITION REACTIONS TO POLARIZED MULTIPLE BONDS The electron flow paths for addition The AdE2 Reaction: Electron Flow Pathways AE + A N

BASIC RULES FOR MECHANISM STUDIES IN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Carbon has 4 bonds – it is neutral. If it has 3 bonds, then look at number of electrons. None – positive - carbocation 1 electron – no charge – free radical 2 electrons – negative - carbanion Curly arrow : Atom where the arrow comes from – becomes less negative or positive. If it was an anion – atom becomes neutral

Many authorities predict that applications of nanotechnologies will ultimately pervade virtually every aspect of life and will enable dramatic advances to be realized in most areas of communication, health, manufacturing, materials and knowledge-based technologies. Even if this is only partially true, there is an obvious need to provide industry and research with suitable tools to assist the development, application and communication of the technologies. One essential tool in this armoury will be the harmonization of the terminology and definitions used in order to promote their common understanding and consistent usage. This terminology includes terms that are either specific to the sector covered by the title or are used with a specific meaning in the field of nanotechnology. It is one of a series of terminology PASs covering many different aspects of nanotechnologies. This terminology attempts not to include terms that are used in a manner consistent with a definition given in the Oxford English Dictionary [1], and terms that already have well established meanings and to which the addition of the prefix “nano” changes only the scale to which they apply but does not otherwise change their meaningThe multidisciplinary nature of nanotechnologies can lead to confusion as to the precise meaning of some terms because of differences in usage between disciplines. Users are advised that, in order to support the standardization of terminology, this PAS provides single definitions wherever possible

Nanoparticles are defined by the worldwide federation of national standards bodies, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), as nanoobjects with all external dimensions in the nanoscale, where the lengths of the longest andshortest axes of nanoobjects do not differ significantly . Though nanoscale is basically ranged from 1 to 100 nm, nanoparticles can be categorized by three size ranges: larger than 500 nm, between 100 and 500 nm, and between 1 and 100 nm (European Commission, 2010). With respect to the size and the size distribution, nanoparticles may exhibit size-related intensive properties. If they are small enough to confine their electrons, they produce quantum effects and exhibit unexpected properties, for example, gold nanoparticles appear red in solution (see, for instance, Eustis and El-Sayed, 2006), and melt at much lower temperatures than that in slab form (Buffat and Borel, 1976). The high surface-area-to-volume ratio of nanoparticles provides the significant changes in properties related to contact/surface area, such as catalytic (Astruc, 2008),surface-enhanced plasmon resonance (Melaine et al., 2015), etc.

An elimination is the loss of two atoms or groups from a molecule, which will typically result in the formation of a new bond.

Lewis Structures A Lewis structure shows what atoms are connected to each other, and it shows where the electrons in the molecule reside. Single bonds between two atoms are represented with a single line, signifying two shared electrons; double bonds are represented with a double line, signifying four shared electrons; and triple bonds are represented with a triple line, signifying six shared. Nonbonding electrons are indicated with dots on the atoms on which they reside.

Nanoscience is the emerging science of objects that are intermediate in size between the largest molecules and the smallest structures that can be fabricated by current photolithography; that is, the science of objects with smallest dimensions ranging from a few nanometers to less than 100 nanometers.[1–3] In chemistry, this range of sizes has historically been associated with colloids, micelles, polymer molecules, phase-separated regions in block copolymers, and similar structures—typically, very large molecules, or aggregates of many molecules. More recently, structures such as buckytubes, silicon nanorods, and compound semi conductor quantum dots have emerged as particularly interesting classes of nanostructures. In physics and electrical engineering, nanoscience is most often associated with quantum behavior, and the behavior of electrons and photons in nanoscale structures. Biology and biochemistry also have a deep interest in nanostructures as components of the cell; many of the most interesting structures in biology—from DNA and viruses to subcellular organelles and gap junctions—can be considered as nanostructures.

In this type of reaction, a nucleophile reacts with haloalkane (the substrate) having a partial positive charge on the carbon atom bonded to halogen. A substitution reaction takes place and halogen atom, called leaving group departs as halide ion. Since the substitution reaction is initiated by a nucleophile, it is called nucleophilic substitution reaction

Path Limitations There are three requirements for the S N 2 reaction. In order to be pushed out, the leaving group must be at least fair, usually good. The nucleophile also must be reactive enough to push out the leaving group. Finally, the back side of the tetrahedral carbon attacked must be accessible to the nucleophile and not blocked by other groups.

The hydroxide ion is a good nucleophile since the oxygen atom has a negative charge and a pair of unshared electrons. The carbon atom is electrophilic since it is bound to a (more electronegative) halogen, which pulls electron density away from the carbon, thus polarizing the bond with carbon bearing partial positive charge and the halogen bearing partial negative charge. The nucleophile is attracted to the electrophile by electrostatic charges. The nucleophile attacks the electrophilic carbon through donation of 2 electrons. Carbon can only have a maximum of 8 valence electrons, so as the carbon nucleophile bond is forming, then the carbon-leaving group bond must be breaking. Iodide is the leaving group since it leaves with the pair of electrons that once bound it to carbon.

Ante-mortem Inspection • This is the comprehensive examination of food animals destined to slaughter • Conducted in the Lairage within 24 hours of slaughter and repeated if slaughter has been delayed over a day • Done by an official veterinarian in the slaughter house • In some cases it can be done on the farm if legislation allows. E.g., pigs and poultry • The slaughterhouse layout and conditions must facilitate the ante-mortem inspections, so that each animal can be readily checked and identified. • Adequate lighting and separate pens for sick or suspect animals are necessary

Post Mortem Examination • Post Mortem Inspection - examination of carcasses and organs after slaughter to assess whether these products are fit for human consumption • Edible products - fit for human consumption; includes meat, certain offal, casing etc. from animals which have been examined and passed by an inspector • Inedible products - meat products which are not fit for human consumption e.g. horn, hair, bone, bristle, blood • Condemned meat - meat and meat products which have been found by an inspector not to be fit for human consumption. Includes diseased and defective carcasses or part of carcasses and severely contaminated products