Many authorities predict that applications of nanotechnologies will ultimately pervade virtually every aspect of life and will enable dramatic advances to be realized in most areas of communication, health, manufacturing, materials and knowledge-based technologies. Even if this is only partially true, there is an obvious need to provide industry and research with suitable tools to assist the development, application and communication of the technologies. One essential tool in this armoury will be the harmonization of the terminology and definitions used in order to promote their common understanding and consistent usage. This terminology includes terms that are either specific to the sector covered by the title or are used with a specific meaning in the field of nanotechnology. It is one of a series of terminology PASs covering many different aspects of nanotechnologies. This terminology attempts not to include terms that are used in a manner consistent with a definition given in the Oxford English Dictionary [1], and terms that already have well established meanings and to which the addition of the prefix “nano” changes only the scale to which they apply but does not otherwise change their meaningThe multidisciplinary nature of nanotechnologies can lead to confusion as to the precise meaning of some terms because of differences in usage between disciplines. Users are advised that, in order to support the standardization of terminology, this PAS provides single definitions wherever possible

Nanoparticles are defined by the worldwide federation of national standards bodies, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), as nanoobjects with all external dimensions in the nanoscale, where the lengths of the longest andshortest axes of nanoobjects do not differ significantly . Though nanoscale is basically ranged from 1 to 100 nm, nanoparticles can be categorized by three size ranges: larger than 500 nm, between 100 and 500 nm, and between 1 and 100 nm (European Commission, 2010). With respect to the size and the size distribution, nanoparticles may exhibit size-related intensive properties. If they are small enough to confine their electrons, they produce quantum effects and exhibit unexpected properties, for example, gold nanoparticles appear red in solution (see, for instance, Eustis and El-Sayed, 2006), and melt at much lower temperatures than that in slab form (Buffat and Borel, 1976). The high surface-area-to-volume ratio of nanoparticles provides the significant changes in properties related to contact/surface area, such as catalytic (Astruc, 2008),surface-enhanced plasmon resonance (Melaine et al., 2015), etc.

An elimination is the loss of two atoms or groups from a molecule, which will typically result in the formation of a new bond.

Lewis Structures A Lewis structure shows what atoms are connected to each other, and it shows where the electrons in the molecule reside. Single bonds between two atoms are represented with a single line, signifying two shared electrons; double bonds are represented with a double line, signifying four shared electrons; and triple bonds are represented with a triple line, signifying six shared. Nonbonding electrons are indicated with dots on the atoms on which they reside.

Nanoscience is the emerging science of objects that are intermediate in size between the largest molecules and the smallest structures that can be fabricated by current photolithography; that is, the science of objects with smallest dimensions ranging from a few nanometers to less than 100 nanometers.[1–3] In chemistry, this range of sizes has historically been associated with colloids, micelles, polymer molecules, phase-separated regions in block copolymers, and similar structures—typically, very large molecules, or aggregates of many molecules. More recently, structures such as buckytubes, silicon nanorods, and compound semi conductor quantum dots have emerged as particularly interesting classes of nanostructures. In physics and electrical engineering, nanoscience is most often associated with quantum behavior, and the behavior of electrons and photons in nanoscale structures. Biology and biochemistry also have a deep interest in nanostructures as components of the cell; many of the most interesting structures in biology—from DNA and viruses to subcellular organelles and gap junctions—can be considered as nanostructures.

In this type of reaction, a nucleophile reacts with haloalkane (the substrate) having a partial positive charge on the carbon atom bonded to halogen. A substitution reaction takes place and halogen atom, called leaving group departs as halide ion. Since the substitution reaction is initiated by a nucleophile, it is called nucleophilic substitution reaction

Path Limitations There are three requirements for the S N 2 reaction. In order to be pushed out, the leaving group must be at least fair, usually good. The nucleophile also must be reactive enough to push out the leaving group. Finally, the back side of the tetrahedral carbon attacked must be accessible to the nucleophile and not blocked by other groups.

The hydroxide ion is a good nucleophile since the oxygen atom has a negative charge and a pair of unshared electrons. The carbon atom is electrophilic since it is bound to a (more electronegative) halogen, which pulls electron density away from the carbon, thus polarizing the bond with carbon bearing partial positive charge and the halogen bearing partial negative charge. The nucleophile is attracted to the electrophile by electrostatic charges. The nucleophile attacks the electrophilic carbon through donation of 2 electrons. Carbon can only have a maximum of 8 valence electrons, so as the carbon nucleophile bond is forming, then the carbon-leaving group bond must be breaking. Iodide is the leaving group since it leaves with the pair of electrons that once bound it to carbon.

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Communication pathways refer to the guidelines used to ensure a common understanding of the expectations for communication. • Pathways of communication are established to meet requirement of organization and workforce. Developing Character, Skills and Competence 7/20/2024 5:33 PM 2 • Communication pathways involve ways of better engagement with colleagues and clients in an organization. • Through communication pathways, a more inclusive and diverse workplace is realized. • It is therefore important to establish internal communication arrangements on communication channels like messages, telephone calls and meetings among others. • Such arrangements create structured connections between the organizations and the employees.

TYPES OF COMPUTER CRIMES The following are some of various types of computer crimes: • Data Interception: This type is exclusive to network environment with teleprocessing activities in which the criminal may tap the signal sent to a computer from remote source. • Data Modification: Alteration, destruction, or erasing of data in the computer, usually done with desire to misallocate money or to cover up management incompetence. • Theft of Software/piracy: Taking or copying data, regardless of whether it is protected by other laws, e.g., copyright, privacy, etc. The cause of this may be for profit purpose or for private use

ENERGY SOURCES All of these different sources of energy are used to produce electricity. Types of Sources of Energy These can be broken down into renewable and non-renewable energy sources. Renewable Energy Source Renewable energy sources are natural resources that can be harnessed to generate energy in an environmentally sustainable way. These sources are replenished by natural processes and are considered a clean and green alternative to fossil fuels. Some of the most common renewable energy sources include: The major types or sources of renewable energy are: i) Solar Energy: Solar energy is harnessed from the sun's radiation using photovoltaic (PV) cells to generate electricity or solar thermal systems to produce heat for various applications. Solar panels are commonly used to capture sunlight and convert it into electricity for residential, commercial, and industrial use. ii) Wind Energy: Wind turbines capture the kinetic energy of moving air and convert it into electricity. Wind farms consist of multiple turbines and are often located in areas with consistent wind patterns. Wind energy is a significant source of electricity generation in many regions. iii) Hydroelectric Power: Hydroelectric power is generated by capturing the energy of flowing or falling water, typically in dams and reservoirs. The movement of water turns turbines, which produce electricity. Hydropower is a well-established and widely used renewable energy source. iv) Geothermal Energy: Geothermal energy is derived from the heat within the Earth's core. It is typically harnessed by tapping into underground reservoirs of hot water or steam, which can be used for heating buildings, generating electricity, or providing direct-use applications like greenhouse heating. v) Biomass Energy: Biomass energy is produced from organic materials, such as wood, agricultural residues, and organic waste. These materials can be burned directly for heat or converted into biofuels like bioethanol and biodiesel for transportation and electricity generation. vi) Ocean Energy: Ocean energy includes various forms of energy generated from the movement of tides, waves, and ocean currents. It is an emerging and still-evolving source of renewable energy with the potential for sustainable power generation near coastlines. vii)Tidal Energy: Tidal energy is generated by the rise and fall of tides in coastal areas. Turbines placed in tidal streams can capture the kinetic energy of the moving water and convert it into electricity. viii)Wave Energy: Wave energy is harnessed from the up and down movement of ocean waves. Various technologies, including oscillating water columns and point absorbers, can capture wave energy and convert it into electricity. ix) Algal Biofuel: Algae can be cultivated and converted into biofuels, such as biodiesel and bioethanol, offering a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels.

Capacitors are passive electronic components that store and release electrical energy. They consist of two conductive plates separated by an insulating material called the dielectric. When a voltage is applied across the capacitor's plates, an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to accumulate on one plate and negative charge on the other. This stored energy can be released when the circuit requires it, maintaining current flow and stabilizing voltage

What is an electronic component? • Electronic components are the building blocks of electronic circuits, each serving a specific function. • There are two types: a) Passive components: Passive components are electronic components that do not require an external power source to operate and cannot introduce power into a circuit. Instead, they can only consume, store, or dissipate electrical energy. Passive components typically influence the voltage, current, or signal flow in an electronic circuit without amplifying or controlling it. Examples: Resistors, Capacitors, Diodes, Inductors. b) Active components: An active component is an electronic component that relies on a source of energy and can inject power into a circuit. Active components are capable of controlling the flow of electricity in a circuit and typically require an external power source to operate. They can amplify signals, process data, and perform other complex functions. Example: Transistors, Integrated Circuits or ICs, Logic Gates.

Ante-mortem Inspection • This is the comprehensive examination of food animals destined to slaughter • Conducted in the Lairage within 24 hours of slaughter and repeated if slaughter has been delayed over a day • Done by an official veterinarian in the slaughter house • In some cases it can be done on the farm if legislation allows. E.g., pigs and poultry • The slaughterhouse layout and conditions must facilitate the ante-mortem inspections, so that each animal can be readily checked and identified. • Adequate lighting and separate pens for sick or suspect animals are necessary

Post Mortem Examination • Post Mortem Inspection - examination of carcasses and organs after slaughter to assess whether these products are fit for human consumption • Edible products - fit for human consumption; includes meat, certain offal, casing etc. from animals which have been examined and passed by an inspector • Inedible products - meat products which are not fit for human consumption e.g. horn, hair, bone, bristle, blood • Condemned meat - meat and meat products which have been found by an inspector not to be fit for human consumption. Includes diseased and defective carcasses or part of carcasses and severely contaminated products

Enzymes Enzymes are biocatalysts the catalysts of life. A catalyst is defined as a substance that increases the velocity or rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing any change in the overall process. Enzymes may be defined as biocatalysts synthesized by living cells. Their basic properties include, They are protein in nature (exception - RNA acting as ribozyme), colloidal and thermolabile in character, and specific in their action. In the laboratory, hydrolysis of proteins by a strong acid at 100oC takes at least a couple of days. The same protein is fully digested by the enzymes in gastrointestinal tract at body temperature (37oC) within a couple of hours. This remarkable difference in the chemical reactions taking place in the living system is exclusively due to enzymes. The very existence of life is unimaginable without the presence of enzymes. Enzymes catalyse a specific substance called a substrate. Role of enzymes in biochemical reactions Enzymes are biological catalysts that increase the rate or velocity, v, of many physiologic reactions yet are not used up in the reaction and are synthesized by living cells. Enzymes are specialized proteins found and produced by living cells and act as biological catalysts a. In the absence of enzymes, most reactions in the body would proceed so slowly that life would be impossible. Some chemical reactions are only possible by enzymes. C. A deficiency in enzyme activity can cause disease. a. Inherited absence or mutations in enzymes involved in critical metabolic pathways e.g. the urea cycle or glycogen metabolism are referred to as inborn errors of metabolism. If not detected soon after birth, these conditions can lead to serious metabolic derangements in infants and even death. b. An enzyme deficiency can produce a deficiency of the product of the reaction it catalyzes, which may inhibit other reactions that depend on availability of that product. c. Accumulation of the substrate or metabolic byproducts of the substrate due to an enzyme deficiency can have profound physiologic consequences. d. Most inborn errors of metabolism manifest after birth because the exchange of metabolites between mother and fetus provides for fetal metabolic needs in utero. e. Therapeutic strategies for enzyme deficiency diseases include dietary modification and potential gene therapy or direct enzyme replacement

HISTORY OF BUILDING Introduction Evolution of built envelopment Building construction is the art of providing shelter to human being. It is the oldest industry which started with the existence of man. This is because man had to protect himself from atmospheric inconveniences such as rain, wind, sunshine, snow etc. The first pre historic man who lived during Stone Age lived in caves which were either excavated on stone or on firm grounds. The excavation tools being sharp stones or sharpened pieces of wood. As man continued to become more civilized there came to existence of constructed shelters such as traditional grass thatched houses with mud walls e.g. maasai manyattas, the Eskimo igloos etc. Today we have modern construction technology in building industry with very much diversified fields such as:- - Masonry / concreting - Plumbing / drainage works - Carpentry / joinery - Painting - Electrical works - Air conditioning - Gases installation - Tilling

Preliminary items for the works 1. Site services a. Water An adequate supply of wholesome drinking water and construction water should be provided and maintained at suitable points conveniently accessible to all persons employed. b. Electricity It is essential for running plant that is electric as well as aiding in communication channels. c. Telephone Construction works involves teamwork hence communication should be clear, concise, complete and correct. d. Access roads and parking areas Restrictions such as rights of way, tree preservation and ancient buildings should be considered. e. Hoarding and fencing A building site and the compound can be given a degree of protection by surrounding with a fence. The fence fulfils two functions: • It defines the limit of the site or compound; • It acts as a deterrent to the would-be trespasser or thief. A fence can be constructed to provide a physical barrier of solid construction or a virtual barrier of open- work construction.

Entrepreneurship may be defined as the visualization and realization of new ideas by insightful individuals, who are able to use information and mobilize resources to implement their vision. Entrepreneurship is the ability (i.e., knowledge plus skills) of a person to translate ideas of commencing a business unit into reality by setting up a business on ground to serve the needs of society and the nation, in the hope of profits