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In an introductory theoretical way the authors attempt to place cartography into the general context of sciences. Based on the traditional definition describing cartography as a science, technique and art, its defined scientific role in the development of geographic thinking is analyzed. This approach corresponds to the procedural method in epistemology. Cartography is, according to a general model in science, classified considering the fact whether its sources of origin of the concepts, its principles and postulates are genuine or derivatives from other disciplines.

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Earthwork is excavation of material from cutting and/or construction of embankments which is required to convert right of way from natural condition and configuration to a level that is ready for pavement works as prescribed in the design of the road.

The rate of change of one dependent quantity with respect to another dependent quantity has great importance. E.g. the rate of change of displacement of a particle with respect to time is called its velocity and the rate of change of velocity is called its acceleration. The rate of change of a quantity ‘y’ with respect to another quantity ‘x’ is known as the derivative or differentiable coefficient of ‘y’ with respect to ‘x.’

A random variable X is continuous if possible values comprise either a single interval on the number line or a union of disjoint intervals. Example: If in the study of the ecology of a lake, X, the r.v. may be depth measurements at randomly chosen locations. Then X is a continuous r.v. The range for X is the minimum depth possible to the maximum depth possible.

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Rectification in the photogrammetric sense means the removal of the effects of tilt on the images in a tilted photograph. It is the process of making equivalent vertical photographs from tilted photo negatives. The resulting equivalent vertical photos are called rectified photos. The process of rectification may entail: i) Plotting from the tilted photo onto another object sheet such that the plotted points are free from tilt displacement. This is called graphical rectification. An example of this is the paper strip method. ii) Optical projection of the photo image onto the map plane and alignment of corresponding features before plotting the missing features in the map by direct tracing. The aero sketch master is an example of this. iii) Photographic rectification (Optical- mechanical rectification) whereby the tilted photograph is projected optically such that the projected image is tilt-free and the image is then photographed to obtain the equivalent vertical photograph. Anharmonic Ratios